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4 references
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- Vol 3 RE: Chapter 14
- Vol 6 RE: Chapters 1, 3, 4, 6, App D
- Vol 7 RE: Chapter 16, App B, App D
developmental relationshipsidentity-supportive environmentsculturally responsive practicesocial-emotional developmentformative assessmentdevelopmental ecosystemsJournal article Evidence summaryAt a glance
Darling-Hammond and colleagues translate an interdisciplinary synthesis of learning and development science into principles for educational practice.
Key ideas
Development is dynamic, shaped by interactions among biology, relationships, experiences, and context; adversity can disrupt learning, while supportive environments foster resilience and plasticity. The review organises evidence around four connected priorities: positive developmental relationships; safe, inclusive, identity-supportive environments; rich learning experiences that build on prior knowledge and promote active, collaborative, and meaningful work; and integrated systems of academic, social, emotional, and health support. It also discusses formative assessment, explicit teaching of learning strategies and social-emotional skills, culturally responsive practice, restorative approaches, and opportunities for agency. Rather than treating these as isolated programmes, schools should create coherent developmental ecosystems.
Why it matters
The article cautions that learners vary and contexts matter, so educators need flexible supports, strong family and community partnerships, and organisational conditions that allow adults to know students well and respond constructively.
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- Vol 6 PE: App E
- Vol 6 RE: Chapter 6
professional learning communitiescollective responsibilitycommon formative assessmentstudent learning evidencesystematic interventioncollaborative teamscontinuous improvementJournal article Evidence summaryAt a glance
DuFour clarifies professional learning communities by identifying three organising ideas. First, schools shift from a focus on teaching to a commitment that every student actually learns, using timely evidence and systematic intervention when learning has not occurred.
Key ideas
Second, educators work in genuine collaborative teams that examine curriculum, assessment, evidence, and classroom practice rather than merely sharing materials, handling logistics, or maintaining congenial relationships. Third, teams focus on results, establish common goals and assessments, study evidence, and use findings for continuous improvement. The article illustrates these principles through a school’s recurring inquiry into essential outcomes, indicators of learning, responses for students needing support, and extensions for those already proficient. A PLC is therefore not any meeting, committee, or supportive culture, and adopting the label does not change practice.
Why it matters
Implementation demands structural time, collective responsibility, disciplined questions, persistence, and willingness to make evidence about student learning consequential for adult action.
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- Vol 4 RE: Chapter 23, App C
professional learning communitiescollective responsibilitycommon formative assessmentsintervention systemsteam normsdistributed leadershipinquiry-action cyclesinstructional improvementBook Evidence summaryAt a glance
DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and Many provide an implementation handbook for professional learning communities organised around learning, collaboration, and results. Teams clarify the essential knowledge and skills all students should acquire, develop common formative assessments, analyse evidence together, and create timely, directive, systematic responses for learners needing additional support or extension.
Key ideas
The authors emphasise collective responsibility: collaboration must focus on questions of curriculum, evidence, instructional response, and improvement rather than administration or voluntary sharing. The book includes protocols, templates, examples, frequently asked questions, and tools for developing shared mission, vision, values, goals, team norms, and intervention systems. Leadership is distributed but not passive; leaders protect time, establish coherent priorities, develop team capacity, and monitor whether practices affect learning. The approach cautions against “PLC-lite,” in which schools adopt vocabulary without changing routines.
Why it matters
Progress comes from repeated cycles of inquiry and action, not from waiting for universal agreement before beginning.
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- Vol 2 RE: Chapter 11
- Vol 5 RE: Chapters 1, 2, 4, App B
assessment as learningformative assessmentsummative assessmentfeedback loopsstudent self-regulationassessment criteriametacognitive developmentBook Evidence summaryAt a glance
Earl distinguishes assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment as learning. Summative assessment certifies achievement; formative assessment supplies evidence teachers use to adapt instruction; assessment as learning places students at the centre as active monitors and regulators of their own learning.
Key ideas
Learners develop criteria, interpret feedback, compare current work with desired quality, identify misconceptions, and decide what to do next. The second edition connects these purposes with contemporary accounts of complex learning and illustrates classroom dilemmas, rubrics, lessons, and implementation across contexts. Assessment as learning does not mean leaving students to judge themselves without standards or teaching. Teachers deliberately model metacognition, make quality visible, design informative tasks, question thinking, and create safe opportunities for revision.
Why it matters
Grades alone provide too little guidance and can displace attention from learning. A balanced system uses each assessment purpose intentionally, with particular investment in feedback loops that build learners’ capacity to understand evidence and exercise informed agency.
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Edition abbreviations
- TE
- Teacher Edition
- PE
- Practice Edition
- RE
- Research Edition
Citation checks
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