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2 references
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- Vol 6 RE: App C, App D, App E
- Vol 7 RE: App C, D
knowledge creationtrialogical learningshared knowledge objectscollaborative inquiryexpansive learningknowledge buildingJournal article Evidence summaryAt a glance
Paavola and Hakkarainen argue that learning is not adequately described only as individual acquisition of knowledge or participation in a community.
Key ideas
They propose a third, “trialogical” metaphor: learning as collaborative creation and sustained development of shared objects, such as explanations, models, practices, or products. The article compares three traditions that exemplify this orientation—Bereiter’s knowledge-building, Engeström’s expansive learning, and Nonaka and Takeuchi’s organizational knowledge creation—and identifies common features while preserving their differences. Its central contribution is an epistemological framework for examining how people collectively advance knowledge through mediated activity. The authors also illustrate how the knowledge-creation perspective can be applied in school settings.
Why it matters
For educators, the argument shifts attention from what an individual learner possesses or how learners participate toward how a group improves shared intellectual objects over time.
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- Vol 3 RE: Chapters 3, 4, 8
- Vol 3 TE: App C
tutor learningpeer tutoringknowledge buildingknowledge tellingexplanatory dialoguediagnostic questioningmisconception detectionself-explanationJournal article Evidence summaryAt a glance
Roscoe and Chi review why peer tutors can learn by teaching and why the potential is often unrealised. Tutor learning should arise when explaining prompts learners to reorganise and elaborate knowledge, monitor comprehension, diagnose a partner’s needs, answer questions, and repair gaps.
Key ideas
The authors distinguish knowledge building from knowledge telling. Knowledge building involves generating inferences, integrating ideas, reflecting, and adapting explanations; knowledge telling consists mainly of summarising or repeating source material. Across the reviewed research, tutoring can benefit tutors, but tutors commonly display a knowledge-telling bias, dominate interaction, ask shallow questions, and miss opportunities to respond constructively to tutee confusion. Prior knowledge, preparation, question type, dialogue, and training influence whether deeper processing occurs. For educators, assigning students to teach is therefore not a sufficient intervention.
Why it matters
Tutors need prompts to explain why and how, compare representations, anticipate misconceptions, ask diagnostic questions, listen to answers, and revise explanations. Assessment should examine both tutor learning and the interaction processes that produced it rather than assuming that time spent explaining guarantees knowledge construction.
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Edition abbreviations
- TE
- Teacher Edition
- PE
- Practice Edition
- RE
- Research Edition
Citation checks
References are checked against publisher records, scholarly indexes, DOI or ISBN metadata, repositories and author records where available. An entry marked [Citation not verified] preserves the wording found in the relevant volume without attributing findings to an unconfirmed work.
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