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2 references
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- Vol 4 RE: Chapters 7, 14
- Vol 7 PE: App D
worked examplescognitive loadfading guidanceproblem solvingschema constructionbackward fadingself-explanationprior knowledgeJournal article Evidence summaryAt a glance
Renkl and Atkinson address how instruction should move from studying worked examples to independent problem solving. Early in skill acquisition, conventional problem solving can overload working memory because novices must search for solution steps while also trying to learn underlying principles.
Key ideas
Complete worked examples reduce unproductive search and support schema construction. As knowledge develops, however, repeatedly studying complete solutions becomes redundant and may impede active learning; learners need increasing responsibility for producing steps. The authors propose fading: begin with fully worked solutions, then successively omit steps that students must complete until they solve entire problems. Backward fading can align with the natural subgoal structure of some domains, while prompts for self-explanation help learners process principles rather than imitate procedures.
Why it matters
The transition should be adapted to prior knowledge because support that helps novices can become extraneous for more advanced learners. For educators, the implication is a planned continuum, not an abrupt switch between explanation and practice: model the process, remove support gradually, require explanation, monitor success and mental effort, and adjust the pace of fading.
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- Vol 3 RE: Chapters 3, 4, 8
- Vol 3 TE: App C
tutor learningpeer tutoringknowledge buildingknowledge tellingexplanatory dialoguediagnostic questioningmisconception detectionself-explanationJournal article Evidence summaryAt a glance
Roscoe and Chi review why peer tutors can learn by teaching and why the potential is often unrealised. Tutor learning should arise when explaining prompts learners to reorganise and elaborate knowledge, monitor comprehension, diagnose a partner’s needs, answer questions, and repair gaps.
Key ideas
The authors distinguish knowledge building from knowledge telling. Knowledge building involves generating inferences, integrating ideas, reflecting, and adapting explanations; knowledge telling consists mainly of summarising or repeating source material. Across the reviewed research, tutoring can benefit tutors, but tutors commonly display a knowledge-telling bias, dominate interaction, ask shallow questions, and miss opportunities to respond constructively to tutee confusion. Prior knowledge, preparation, question type, dialogue, and training influence whether deeper processing occurs. For educators, assigning students to teach is therefore not a sufficient intervention.
Why it matters
Tutors need prompts to explain why and how, compare representations, anticipate misconceptions, ask diagnostic questions, listen to answers, and revise explanations. Assessment should examine both tutor learning and the interaction processes that produced it rather than assuming that time spent explaining guarantees knowledge construction.
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Edition abbreviations
- TE
- Teacher Edition
- PE
- Practice Edition
- RE
- Research Edition
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